The Color of Bias

The Color of Bias: Kodak, Racial Representation, and the Intersection of Technology, Race, and Media - Part 1

This is the first of several posts where I will be exploring the intersection of technology, race, and media, focusing on Kodak's influential role in the film industry and the racial biases embedded in its color science and technological choices. The bulk of this essay is extracted from a master's thesis I wrote in 2024 as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Summer Master's Program 2024 at Colour Training (colour.training). This Master's program offers the most comprehensive study on color grading available anywhere in the world today.

ABSTRACT

Kodak, a dominant figure in 20th-century cinema and photography, standardized color film technology that was optimized for lighter skin tones, which had significant implications for racial representation in visual media, often leading to the underrepresentation and misrepresentation of darker skin tones. These biases were not merely technical oversights but reflected broader societal norms and industry practices that prioritized white subjects, thereby perpetuating racial hierarchies.

This study also delves into the role of lighting techniques and other industry standards in perpetuating these biases and examines the global implications of Kodak's color technology. A key component of this analysis is the examination of “Shirley Cards”, a tool used by Kodak for color calibration, which became emblematic of exclusionary practices within the industry.

Through a detailed exploration of these practices, this thesis underscores the critical need to address ingrained biases in technology and media to promote a more equitable and inclusive representation of all people. Furthermore, it demonstrates the power and responsibility bestowed upon all manner of media creators and the broad implications of the choices we make around the use of color in our work.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to extend my gratitude to Dr. Lorna Roth and Dr. Liz Faber, whose pioneering research has been instrumental in uncovering the issues of color bias within imaging technology. Their groundbreaking work not only provided the foundation for the ideas explored in this thesis but also sparked my deep curiosity and passion for investigating these critical topics further.

INTRODUCTION

OVERVIEW

Visual media, including photography and film, is a powerful tool in shaping cultural narratives and societal perceptions. It has the capacity to define how we see the world and, crucially, how we see ourselves and others within it. However, the technologies that underlie the creation and dissemination of visual content are not neutral. They are designed, developed, and implemented within specific social, cultural, and economic contexts that influence their function and impact. This thesis explores how these technologies—specifically those developed by Kodak—have perpetuated racial biases, particularly through the company's early color film stocks originally optimized for lighter skin tones.

The significance of this study lies in its ability to reveal how technological choices can influence and perpetuate social inequities. By examining the historical development of film stock and understanding its implications for racial representation, this thesis provides insights into the broader societal impact of these biases. The study is not limited to technical details; it also explores how these biases have shaped the representation of race in visual media, contributing to the marginalization of non-white individuals and reinforcing existing power structures.

KODAK'S ROLE IN THE FILM INDUSTRY

Kodak, a name synonymous with photography and cinema for much of the 20th century, played a dominant role in shaping the visual language of modern media. The company's innovations in film technology, particularly its development of color film, set industry standards and became the benchmark for amateur and professional photographers, cinematographers, and cinema productions worldwide. However, Kodak's influence extended beyond its technological innovations. The company's decisions on film chemistry and color science, which prioritized lighter skin tones, had sweeping implications for racial representation in visual media.

Kodak's dominance in the market allowed it to shape industry practices and standards, which were often developed with white subjects as the default. This bias was not merely an accidental byproduct of technical choices but was deeply intertwined with societal norms that prioritized white individuals in visual representation. The consequences of these choices were significant, leading to the underrepresentation and misrepresentation of non-white individuals in photographs and films. We will examine Kodak's historical role in setting these standards and the broader impact of these choices on global visual culture.

TECHNOLOGICAL CHOICES AND SOCIAL BIASES

Technology is often perceived as a neutral tool, shaped by its use rather than by its design. However, this perception is misleading. The development of any technology is influenced by the social, cultural, and economic context in which it is created, and these influences can lead to embedding societal biases within the technology itself. One could consider the work of Canadian communication theorist Marshall McLuhan who coined the phrase “The medium is the message”. Kodak's development of color film stock that favored lighter skin tones over darker ones is a prime example of how technological choices can perpetuate existing social biases.

These biases were not merely technical oversights; they mirrored the racial attitudes and norms prevalent at the time. By embedding these biases into its color science, Kodak influenced how different races were depicted and perceived in modern media. The impact of these choices was profound, shaping the visual portrayal of race and reinforcing racial hierarchies within society. This thesis examines how Kodak's technological decisions, though seemingly minor, had significant social consequences, shaping the way race was visually depicted in media.

THE INTERSECTION OF RACE, TECHNOLOGY AND MEDIA

In today’s world, where images and videos are central to communication and storytelling, understanding the relationship between technology, race, and media is crucial. This thesis seeks to shed light on how technological choices, specifically choices regarding color science, made by companies like Kodak have contributed to racial biases in visual media. By examining the historical, technical, and social aspects of this issue, this thesis aims to highlight how these seemingly neutral technological choices can have broad consequences for how race is portrayed and for social equality.

I will emphasize the importance of this intersectional approach and clearly define the research objectives. By understanding the historical development of Kodak's film stocks, its impact on racial representation, and the broader societal implications, this thesis will contribute to a deeper understanding of how technology can influence social dynamics.

Chapter 1: The Evolution of Film Stock

The Development of Photographic Technology

The history of photography is one of continuous innovation and technological advancement. The journey from the early camera obscura to today’s sophisticated digital cameras has been marked by significant milestones, each contributing to the evolution of visual media as we know it. The development of photographic technology began in earnest in the early 19th century with the introduction of the daguerreotype by Louis Daguerre in 1839. This process allowed for the creation of detailed images on silver-plated copper sheets, marking the first practical method of photography.

As the popularity of photography grew, so did the desire to capture images in color. Early attempts at color photography were complex and often impractical, involving labor-intensive processes that produced only limited results. However, these early experiments laid the groundwork for future developments in color photography. The first significant breakthrough came with the introduction of the autochrome process by the Lumière brothers in 1907. This process used a mosaic of dyed grains to create color images, and while it was an improvement over previous methods, it still had limitations in terms of color accuracy and ease of use.

The real revolution in color photography came with the development of subtractive color processes, which involved layering multiple color-sensitive emulsions on a single film strip. This technique allowed for the creation of more realistic and vibrant color images and paved the way for the widespread adoption of color photography in the 20th century. Companies like Kodak played a pivotal role in popularizing these new technologies, making color photography accessible to both amateur and professional photographers and filmmakers.

One of the most significant advancements in color film technology came with the introduction of Kodachrome by Kodak in 1935. Kodachrome was a "tripack" film, meaning it used three layers of emulsion, each sensitive to a different primary color (red, green, and blue). This innovation allowed for more accurate color reproduction and set a new standard for the industry. Kodachrome’s success was followed by the introduction of other color film stocks, such as Ektachrome and Kodacolor, further cementing Kodak's position as the leader in photographic technology.

However, the development of color photography was not without its challenges. One of the key issues was the difficulty in accurately reproducing certain colors, particularly skin tones. The chemical composition of Kodak’s color film was optimized for specific hues, and the testing and development processes invariably used white subjects as the standard. This led to an embedded bias in the color balance and contrast rendering of the film emulsion. As a result, individuals with darker skin tones were often diminished or inaccurately portrayed in films and photographs, an issue that would have far-reaching implications for how race was depicted in visual media.

Go to part two!

https://freeelectronmedia.com/blog/the-color-of-bias---part-2